The Puritan Age (1600/1620-1660) - Age of Milton:

 

The Puritan Age (1600/1620-1660) - Age of Milton:

The Puritan Age (1600-1660)The 

Literature of the Seventeenth Century may be divided into two periods—The Puritan Age Or the Age of Milton(1600-1660), which is further divided into the Jacobean and Caroline Periods after the names of the ruled James I and Charles I, who ruled from 1603 to 1625 and 1625 to 1649 respectively; and the Restoration Period or the Age of Dryden (1660-1700).

Literary Characteristics of Age:

Transition from Renaissance to Modern Spirit:

The Seventeenth Century was marked by the decline of the Renaissance spirit, and the writers either imitated the great masters of Elizabethan period or followed new paths. We no longer find great imaginative writers of the stature of Shakespeare, Spenser and Sidney. There is a marked change in temperament which may be called essentially modern. Though during the Elizabethan period, the new spirit of the Renaissance had broken away with the mediaeval times, and started a new modern development, in fact it was in the seventeenth century that this task of breaking away with the past was completely accomplished, and the modern spirit,in the fullest sense of the term, came into being. This spirit may be defined as the spirit of observation and of preoccupation with details, and a systematic analysis of facts, feelings and ideas. In other words, it was the spirit of science popularised by such great men as Newton,Bacon and Descartes. 

Criticism's Emergence:

During the Seventeenth Century, a new form of literary activity arose: criticism. This marked a departure from earlier literary periods where the primary focus had been on creativity and expression. Critics began to analyze and evaluate literary works, dissecting their merits, themes, and techniques. This analytical approach was a reflection of the broader shift towards systematic analysis and observation, characteristic of the period.

Taking Stock of Knowledge:

While the Sixteenth Century had seen England's expansion in various domains including exploration and trade, the Seventeenth Century was a time when people took stock of the knowledge and cultural achievements amassed. Rather than just expanding, there was a growing interest in understanding and categorising acquired knowledge. This led to the systematisation of various fields, including literature.

Using English for Facts:

An important shift occurred as writers began to use the English language not only for creative expression but also as a tool for conveying factual information. While creative works had certainly been written in English before, this period witnessed the language being employed for conveying information in a more direct and factual manner. This shift laid the foundation for more non-fictional forms of writing.

Popularization of Biography:

One of the most significant outcomes of the newfound emphasis on observation and analysis was the popularization of biography. Biography became a means of chronicling the lives of notable individuals, preserving their achievements, experiences, and personal details. Unlike the Sixteenth Century, where little was known about the private lives of prominent figures like Shakespeare, the Seventeenth Century saw authors like Fuller and Aubrey diligently collecting even the smallest facts about contemporary and recent great men.

Introduction of Autobiography:

Following the rise of biography, the concept of autobiography emerged. Autobiographical works allowed individuals to share their own life experiences, thoughts, and emotions in a more personal manner. This marked a shift towards introspection and self-awareness, reflecting the growing interest in understanding individual psychology and experiences.

Diaries and Journals:

The trend of recording personal experiences and thoughts extended to diaries and journals. People like Samuel Pepys and George Fox kept detailed records of their daily lives, thoughts, and observations. These writings provided insight into the intimate aspects of their lives, offering a unique perspective on the thoughts and emotions of real individuals. These documents were not only valuable historical records but also contributed to the spirit of analysis and introspection.

Literary Developments Meeting Demand for Realism:

The Seventeenth Century witnessed a growing demand for literature that delved into the intimate thoughts, emotions, and sensations of real individuals. This shift towards realism was a response to the evolving tastes of readers who sought more authentic portrayals of human experiences. The emergence of forms like biography, autobiography, and character sketches was driven by this desire to explore the depth of human nature.

The 'Character' and Realism:

The 'Character,' a brief descriptive essay, was a manifestation of this newfound realism. These essays depicted contemporary types, like a tobacco-seller or an old shoe-maker, with vivid details and insight into their personalities. By presenting real individuals in their ordinary lives, this form provided a more authentic representation of society, aligning with the growing interest in understanding human behaviour and social dynamics.

Realism in Drama and Satire:

Realism extended to other forms of literature as well. In drama, plays began to portray the flaws and foibles of fashionable contemporary society. This approach aimed to expose the realities of human behavior, rather than presenting idealized characters. In satire, there was a departure from merely ridiculing common faults. Instead, actual individuals from opposing political and religious groups became targets. This move towards specific satire highlighted the real conflicts and tensions of the time. As readers became more critical and discerning, there was a growing demand for accurate information and analysis. This shift paralleled the broader cultural trend of systematic analysis and observation. 

General Characteristics of Age:

Civil War: 

The entire period was dominated by the civil war, which divided the people into two factions, one loyal to the King and the other opposed to him. English people had remained one and united and loyal to the sovereign. The crisis began when James I, who had recoined the right of royalty from an Act of Parliament, gave too much premium to the Divine Right and began to ignore Parliament which had created him. The Puritans, who had become a potent force in the social life of the age, heralded the movement for constitutional reforms. The hostilities, which began in 1642, lasted till the execution of Charles I in 1649. There was little political stability during the interregnum of eleven years which followed. These turbulent years saw the establishment of the Common­wealth, the rise of Oliver Cromwell, the confusion which followed upon his death, and, finally, the restoration of monarchy in 1660.

The Dominance of Puritanism:

The period up to 1660 was dominated by Puritanism, a movement that held significant influence over both literature and society. Puritanism's impact can be seen as a continuation of the Renaissance's intellectual awakening but with a renewed focus on moral development. The Renaissance had brought culture, but it often emphasised sensuous and pagan themes. Puritanism introduced moral sobriety and profundity to counterbalance this cultural trend.

Puritanism as a Second Renaissance:

Puritanism can be viewed as a "second Renaissance" due to its emphasis on the rebirth of the moral nature of humankind. While the Renaissance celebrated intellectual and artistic achievements, Puritanism added an ethical dimension. This movement sought to address moral values and high ideals that the Renaissance had not fully encompassed.

Puritanism's Objectives:

The Puritan movement had two main objectives: personal righteousness and civil/religious liberty. It aimed to instil individual honesty and integrity while also advocating for freedom from the oppressive rule of dictatorial leaders. Puritanism stood for the introduction of morality and high ideals in politics, working towards a society where individuals were not only free but also morally upright.

Restoration Period Perception of Puritans:

During the Restoration period, which followed the English Civil War and the eventual establishment of the monarchy after the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell, Puritans faced criticism. They were often portrayed as narrow-minded and overly strict individuals who opposed various forms of entertainment and leisure. This perception, while not entirely accurate, gained traction due to certain policies and restrictions imposed during the Puritan-dominated era.

Figures like John Milton and Oliver Cromwell, who were associated with Puritanism, were not narrow-minded activist. They were indeed champions of liberty and toleration. Milton's writings, such as his defence of free speech in "Areopagitica," and Cromwell's efforts to protect religious freedoms and establish a republic demonstrate their commitment to individual rights and freedoms.

Origins of the Term 'Puritan':

The term "Puritan" was initially used to describe individuals who sought certain reforms in the worship practices of the English Church under

Queen Elizabeth I. They wanted to purify the church from the remains of Catholicism. Over time, as conflicts between King Charles I and these reform-minded individuals escalated, the term evolved to encompass a broader movement against the king's perceived tyranny.

Puritanism as a Response to Tyranny:

As King Charles I and his advisors resisted Puritan reforms and supported policies that centralised power, Puritanism evolved into a movement that stood against this perceived despotism. While extreme factions within Puritanism could be seen as serious and even extremists due to the prolonged struggle against tyranny, it's important to note that the movement itself was a reaction to the oppressive rule.

So when Charles I was defeated and beheaded in 1649 and Puritanism came out triumphant with the establishment of the Commonwealth under Cromwell, severe laws passed. Many simple modes of recreation and amusement were banned, and a strict standard of living was imposed on unwilling people. But when we criticise the Puritan for his restrictions on simple and innocent pleasures of life, we should not forget that it was the same very Puritan who fought for liberty and justice, and who through self-discipline and austere way of living overthrew despotism and made the life and property of the people of England safe from the tyranny of rulers. In literature of the Puritan Age we find the same confusion as we find in religion and politics. The mediaeval standards of chivalry, the impossible loves and romances which we find in Spenser and Sidney, have completely disappeared. As there were no fixed literary standards, imitations of older poets and exaggeration of the ‘metaphysical’ poets replaced the original, dignified and highly imaginative compositions of the Elizabethan writers. The literary achievements of this so-called dark age are not of a high order, but it had the honour of producing one solitary master of verse whose work would shed lustre on any age or people—John Milton, who was the noblest and indomitable representative of the Puritan spirit to which he gave a most lofty and enduring expression.

John Milton:

Milton's Life: John Milton was born in Bread Street, Cheapside, London, on 9th December, 1608. He was educated at St. Paul's School and at Christ's College, Cambridge. His books had kept him out of bed till midnight. He had shown untiring devotion to learning. Milton thus became a very great scholar. His "Paradise Lost" was published in 1667. Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes in 1671. Milton died on 8th November 1674.

Milton's works fall into 4 periods: (l) the College period, closing with the end of the Cambridge Career in 1632, 

(2) the Horton period. closing with his departure for the Continent in 1638, 

(3) the period of his prose writings, from 1640 to 1660 and 4) the late poetic period, or period of his greatest achievement. In 'Lycidas' Milton mourns the late death of his college friend Edward King. It is a pastoral Elegy.

Milton's Poetry:

 In "Paradise Lost", Milton produced the greatest English poem. In this masterpiece, he revealed his intellectual energy and creative power. The inspiration and the subject matter of the poem come from Milton's Puritanism insists on Eternal Providence and justify the ways of God to men. In "Paradise Lost", Milton setforth the revolt of Satan against God, the war in heaven, the fall of the rebel angels, the creation of the world and man, the temptation of Eve and Adam, and their expulsion from Eden. He introduces the divine work of redemption. The dramatic poem, "Samson Agonistes" crown the labours of his closing years. In "Paradise Lost'", Milton applies the principles of Greek tragedy.

Characteristics of Milton's Poetry:

 After Shakespeare, Milton is the greatest English poet. In him, we have a wonderful union of intellectual power and creative power. He is the most sublime of English poets. In grand style, majesty of thought and diction, he is unrivalled. His descriptive power is excellent. In the opening books of 'Paradise Lost", the debate in the council of the fallen angels shows Milton's extraordinary insight into motive and character. There is an intensity of individuality throughout the poem. In the technical side of his poetry, his great beauty of style and versification are noteworthy. Milton remains our greatest master.

(a) Puritan Poetry

 The Puritan poetry, also called the Jacobean and Caroline Poetry during the reigns of James I and Charles I respectively, can be divided into three parts –

(i) Poetry of the School of Spenser; 

(ii) Poetry of the Metaphysical School; 

(iii) Poetry of the Cavalier Poets.

(i)The School of Spenser.

 The Spenserians were the followers of Spenser. In spite of the changing conditions and literary tastes which resulted in a reaction against the diffuse, confidential, Italianate poetry  which Spenser and Sidney had made fashionable during the sixteenth century, they preferred to follow Spenser and considered him as their master.The most thorough-going disciples of Spenser during the reign of James I were Phineas Fletcher (1582-1648) and Giles Fletcher (1583-1623). They were both priests and Fellows of Cambridge University. Phineas Fletcher wrote a number of Spenserian pastorals and allegories. His most ambitious poem The Purple Island, portrays in a minutely detailed allegory the physical and mental constitution of man, the struggle between Temperance and his foes, the will of man and Satan. Though the poem follows the allegorical pattern of the Faerie Queene, it does not lift us to the realm of pure romance as does Spenser’s masterpiece, and at times the strain of the allegory becomes too unbearable. 

Giles Fletcher was more lyrical and mystical than his brother, and he also made a happier choice of subjects. His Christ’s Victory and Triumph in Heaven and Earth over and after Death(1610), which is an allegorical narrative describing in a lyrical strain the Atonement, Temptation, Crucifixion, and Resurrection of Christ, is a link between the religious poetry of Spenser and Milton. It is written in a flamboyant, diffuse style of Spenser, but its ethical aspect is in keeping with the seventeenth century theology which considered man as an undersized creature in the divine scheme of salvation. Other poets who wrote under the influence of Spenser were William Browne (1590-1645).George Wither (1588-1667) and William Drummond(1585-1649). 

William Browne’s important poetical work is Britannia’s Pastorals which shows all the characteristics of Elizabethan pastoral poetry. It is obviously inspired by Spenser’s Faerie Queene and Sidney’s Arcadia as it combines allegory with satire. It is a story of seeking for support and adventure, of the nymphs (Angel) who change into streams and flowers. It also sings the praise of  virtue and of poets and dead and living. 

(ii) The Poets of the Metaphysical School

The metaphysical poets were John Donne, Herrick, Thomas Carew, Richard Crashaw,Henry Vaughan, George Herbet and Lord Herbert of Cherbury. The leader of this school was Donne. They are called the metaphysical poets not because they are highly philosophical, but because their poetry is full of conceits - self love , exaggerations- overstatement  , quibbling about the meanings of words, display of learning and far-fetched similes and metaphors. It was Dr. Johnson who in his essay on Abraham Cowley in his Lives of the Poets used the term ‘metaphysical’. There he wrote:

“About the beginning of the seventeenth century appeared a race of writers that may be termed the metaphysical poets. The metaphysical poets were men of learning, and to show their learning was their whole endeavour: but, unluckily resolving to show it in rhyme, instead of writing poetry, they only wrote verses and very often such verses as stood the trial of the finger better than of the ear; for the modulation was so imperfect that they were only found to be verses by counting the syllables. Though Dr. Johnson was prejudiced against the Metaphysical school of poets, and the above statement is full of exaggeration, yet he pointed out the main characteristics of this school. One important feature of metaphysical school which Dr. Johnson mentioned their,

He said the metaphysical poets were odd and used strange ideas. They forced together very different concepts, using nature and art to explain their points. They wanted to say things in new ways, even if it sounded weird. But Dr. Johnson saw that behind their oddness, there was something original. Sometimes they came up with smart ideas, and even if their concepts were far-fetched, they were still worth considering. To write like them, you needed to read a lot and think deeply. You couldn't just copy others.

The metaphysical poets were honest and unique thinkers. They tried to understand their feelings, including love, and they thought about life, death, and serious things like that. Even though they hoped to be remembered forever, they often felt obsessed with the fact that they would die someday. This made them sound a bit too sentimental.

The metaphysical poets were honest, original thinkers. They tried to analyse their feelings and experience—even the experience of love. They were also aware of life, and were concerned with death, burial, descent into hell etc. Though they hoped for immortality, they  were obsessed by the consciousness of mortality which was often expressed in a mood of mawkish disgust.

John Donne, who led the metaphysical poets, had an interesting life before becoming the Dean of St. Paul's Cathedral. He mostly gave religious speeches, but he also wrote very good poetry. His famous works include "The Progress of the Soul," "An Anatomy of the World," and "Epithalamium." His poetry can be divided into three parts: Donne's earliest work focused on love.

He moved away from the popular Petrarchan style of Elizabethan poets.

He expressed love realistically, breaking from conventional approaches.

In his amorous lyrics which include his earliest work, he broke away from the Petrarchan model so popular among the Elizabethan poets, and expressed the experience of love in a realistic manner. His metaphysical and satirical works which from a major portion of his poetry, were written in later years.The Progress of the Soul And Metempsychosis,

showcases John Donne's metaphysical style as he delves into the soul's journey through various transmigrations, even embodying forms like a bird and fish. This work exemplifies his intellectual and complex approach to poetry. Additionally, his satirical abilities are evident in his fourth satire, where he humorously describes the character of a bore. Both of these works were written in rhymed couplets, a style that influenced subsequent poets like Dryden and Pope. Donne has often been likened to Robert Browning due to shared traits such as metrical roughness, obscurity, an intense imagination, affinity for metaphysics, and unexpected shifts into sweet and delightful musicality. However, a crucial distinction lies between them: while Donne is a poet of wit, Browning is a poet of ardent passion. Notably, Donne intentionally departed from the smooth and sweet Elizabethan verse tradition, opting for a harsh and staccato method, signifying a shift in poetic sensibilities.

Like Browning, Donne has no sympathy for the reader who cannot follow his keen and incisive thought, while his poetry is most difficult to understand because of its careless versification and excessive terseness.Thus with Donne, the Elizabethan poetry with its mellifluousness, and richly observant imagination, came to an end, and the Caroline poetry with its harshness and deeply reflective imagination began. Though Shakespeare and Spenser still exerted some influence on the poets, yet Donne’s influence was more dominant. Moving on to Robert Herrick (1591-1674), he was a poet who wrote both love and religious verses, but he's particularly famous for his love poems. While he shared commonalities with Elizabethan songwriters in terms of style, Herrick's inclusion in the metaphysical school of Donne stems from his distinctive attributes. His poetry exhibited pensive fantasy, and in his religious verses, he introduced a meditative strain. This depth of contemplation aligned with the metaphysical style characterised by intellectual exploration.

Robert Herrick (1591-1674) wrote amorous as well as religious verse, but it is on account of the poems of the former type—love poems, for which he is famous. He has much in common with the Elizabethan song writers, but on account of his pensive fantasy, and a meditative strain especially in his religious verse, Herrick is included in the metaphysical school of Donne.

Thomas Carew (1598-1639), another poet influenced by Donne's style, emerged as one of the finest lyric writers of his time. In comparison to Herrick, Carew lacked the spontaneous and fresh approach but excelled in crafting poems with exceptional workmanship. His verses displayed careful and skillful construction, showcasing his prowess in shaping language and ideas. This finesse elevated his work above mere spontaneity.

Richard Crashaw (1613?-1649) had a distinct temperament unlike that of poets like Herrick or Carew. His poetry had a fundamentally religious nature, and his most notable work is "The Flaming Heart." While he might not have been as imaginative as Herrick and intellectually not on par with Carew, Crashaw occasionally reached remarkable heights of excellence in his poetry.

Henry Vaughan (1622-1695) shared a mystic quality with Crashaw but demonstrated versatility in both sacred and secular verse. Although he lacked Crashaw's vigour, Vaughan's poetry was more uniform and clear, projecting a sense of tranquillity and depth.

George Herbert (1593-1633), besides Donne, is one of the most widely read poets from the metaphysical school. This popularity can be attributed to the clarity of his expression and the transparency of his conceits (unusual comparisons or metaphors). His religious poetry exudes simplicity and a natural earnestness. Alongside the didactic themes, his work also carries a hint of whimsical humor, creating a balance between seriousness and wit.

Lord Herbert of Cherbury, though less accomplished as a verse writer compared to his brother George Herbert, is renowned for his autobiography. Notably, he was the first to employ the meter that Tennyson later made famous in "In Memoriam."

Abraham Cowley (1618-1667), Andrew Marvell (1621-1672), and Edmund Waller (1606-1687) are other poets considered part of the Metaphysical group. Cowley gained fame for his "Pindaric Odes," which significantly influenced English poetry in the eighteenth century. Marvell is known for his close friendship with Milton and his poetry's engagement with the conflict between the Spenserian and Donnean styles. Waller stands out as the pioneer of the 'closed couplet,' a form that dominated English poetry for a century.

The Metaphysical poets embodied both the spiritual and moral fervour of the Puritans and the open amorous tendencies of the Elizabethans. Their poetry sometimes echoed the Elizabethans' theme of seizing the day and enjoying life to the fullest, as seen in lines like "Gather ye Rosebuds while ye may." advising people to take advantage of life while they are young. Other times, they sought lasting solace in spiritual experiences.

Moving on to the Cavalier poets, their name is a bit misleading. While 'Cavalier' generally refers to royalists who supported the king during the Civil War, not all followers of Ben Jonson, who inspired these poets, were royalists. Nevertheless, the label has become associated with them. Jonson, who followed a classical style in both his poetry and drama, imitated Horace by writing various forms such as satires, elegies, epistles, and complimentary verses. However, his poetry lacked the grace and ease of Horace's style. Unlike Shakespeare's songs that were pastoral, popular, and seemingly effortless, Jonson's lyrics were sophisticated, specific, and carried intellectual and emotional rationality.

In essence, the Metaphysical poets displayed a unique blend of spiritual and amorous themes, while the Cavalier poets, despite the misleading label, were influenced by Ben Jonson's classical style and displayed a different lyrical approach from Shakespeare.

Cavalier and Metaphysical Poets: 

The classification of poets into the Cavalier and Metaphysical groups is not always as distinct as it might appear. While they are often treated as separate schools, there is a significant amount of overlap between them, leading to a more nuanced understanding of their literary affiliations.

Shared Influences and Discipleship:

It's crucial to recognize that certain poets belonging to the Cavalier camp, such as Carew, Suckling, and Lovelace, were also deeply influenced by the style and themes of John Donne. This connection underscores the intermingling of the two groups. In addition to these poets, certain poems by Donne and Ben Jonson, the figure who inspired the Cavalier poets, bear striking resemblances. This further blurs the lines between the two categories, suggesting that the divisions are not as rigid as they might initially appear.

Two Masters, Two Approaches:

Rather than being two completely distinct schools, the Cavalier and Metaphysical poets can be better understood as representing two clusters of poets who followed the teachings and styles of two different literary mentors: John Donne and Ben Jonson. While they undoubtedly drew inspiration from their respective masters, the resulting poetry often displayed a mix of characteristics, making it difficult to categorise them definitively.

 Themes and Styles:

Both groups of poets shared a common departure from the lengthy and conventional works of the Spenserians, who were influenced by Edmund Spenser's poetic style. Instead, they embraced brevity and focused on crafting shorter poems and lyrics. These compositions frequently revolved around two central themes: the love of women and the intricate relationship between humanity and God. This thematic focus was something of a departure from the traditional epic and romance styles that had dominated earlier periods.

 Insignificance vs. Seriousness:

One of the key distinguishing factors between the two groups lies in their choice of subject matter. The Cavalier poets, influenced by Ben Jonson's style, often explored lighter and more trivial subjects in their poetry. These might encompass themes like courtly love, the pleasures of life, and the intrigues of courtly society. On the other hand, the Metaphysical poets, inspired by John Donne's intellectual and spiritual style, tended to tackle more profound and intricate themes. Their poetry delved into complex philosophical, metaphysical, and religious matters, often involving intricate wordplay and unconventional comparisons.

A Nuanced Understanding:

 While the Cavalier and Metaphysical poets are often discussed as two separate literary schools, the reality is more complex. Their divisions are not absolute, and many poets found themselves influenced by both John Donne's metaphysical approach and Ben Jonson's classicism. The choice between the two schools was often dependent on whether a poet leaned more towards Donne's complex intellectualism or Jonson's neoclassical style. Both groups transitioned away from longer poetic forms towards shorter poems and lyrics centred on the themes of love and spirituality. While the Cavalier poets focused on lighter subjects, the Metaphysical poets tackled profound matters. This overlapping and complex landscape demonstrates that the literary history of this period is more nuanced and interconnected than it might initially appear.